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    Beyond Feelings——A Guide to Critical ThinkingVincent Ryan RuggieroTo the memory of Howard Trumble,whose quiet practice of the skillsdetialed in this book was an inspirationto me, to his family, and to all who knew him.ContentsprefaceIntroduction 1PART ONE The ContextChapter 1 Who Are You?The Influence of Time and PlaceThe Influence of IdeasThe influence of Mass CultureThe ""Science"" of ManipulationThe Influence of PsychologyBecoming an IndividualChapter 2 What Is Critical Thinking?Mind, Brain, or Both?Critical Thinking DefinedCharacteristics of Critical ThinkersThe Role of IntuitionBasic Activities in Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking and WritingCritical Thinking and DiscussionAvoiding PlagiarismChapter 3 What Is Truth?Where Does It All Begin?Imperfect PerceptionImperfect MemoryDeficient InformationEven the Wisest Can ErrTruth Is Discovered, Not CreatedUnderstanding Cause and EffectChapter 4 What Does It Mean to Know?Requirements of KnowingTesting Your Own KnowledgeHow We Come to KnowWhy Knowing Is DifficultA Cautionary TaleIs Faith a Form of Knowledge?Obstacles to KnowledgeChapter 5 How Good Are Your Opinions?Opinions Can Be MistakenOpinions on Moral IssuesEven Experts Can Be WrongKinds of ErrorsInformed Versus Uninformed OpinionForming Opinions ResponsiblyChapter 6 What Is Evidence?Kinds of EvidenceEvaluating EvidenceWhat Constitutes Sufficient Evidence?Chapter 7 What Is Argument?The Parts of an ArgumentEvaluating ArgumentsMore Difficult ArgumentsPART TWO The PitfallsChapter 8 The Basic Problem: ""Mine Is Better""Egocentric PeopleEthnocentric PeopleControlling ""Mine-Is-Better"" ThinkingChapter 9 Errors of PerspectivePoverty of AspectUnwarrented AssumptionsThe Either/Or OutlookMindless ConformityAbsolutismRelativismBias for or Against ChangeChapter 10 Errors of ProcedureBiased Consideration of EvidenceDouble StandardHasty ConclustionOvergeneralization and StereotypingOversimplificationThe Post Hoc FallacyChapter 11 Errors of ExpressionContradictionArguing in a CircleMeaningless StatementMistaken AuthorityFalse AnalogyIrrational AppealChapter 12 Errors of ReactionAutomatic RejectionChanging the SubjectShifting the Burden of ProofStraw ManAttacking the CriticChapter 13 The Errors in CombinationErrors of PerspectiveErrors of ProcedureErrors of ExpressionErrors of ReactionSample Combinations of ErrorsA Sensible View of TerminologyPART THREE A sTRATEGYChapter 14 Knowing YourselfCritical Thinking InventoryUsing Your InventoryChallenge and RewardChapter 15 Being ObservantObserving PeopleObservation in Science and MedicineThe Range of ApplicationBecoming More ObservantReflecting on Your ObservationsChapter 16 Selecting an IssueThe Basic Rule: Less Is MoreHow to Limit an IssueSample Issue: PornographySample Issue: BoxingSample Issue: Juvenile CrimeNarrowing the Issue FurtherChapter 17 Conducting InquiryWorking with Inconclusive ResultsWhere to Look for INformationKeeping FocusedHow Much Inquiry Is Enough?Managing Lengthy MaterialChapter 18 Forming a JudgmentEvaluating EvidenceEvaluating Your Sources' ArgumentsMaking Important DistinctionsExpressing JudgmentsChapter 19 Persuading OthersGuidelineds for PersuasionAn Unpersuasive PresentationA Persuasive PresentationNotesIndexPrefaceWhen the first edition of this book appeared in 1975, the dominant intellectual focus was still subjectiveity, feelings. That focus, the legacy of the 1960s, was originally a necessary reaction to the rationalism and behaviorism that preceded it. It declared, in effect:""People are not robots. They are more than the sum total of their physiology. They have hopes, dreams, emotions. No two humans are alike--each has as special perspective, a unique way of perceiving the world. And any view of humanity that ignores this subjective side is a distortion.""Yet, despite its value, the focus on feelings went too far. Like many other movements, what began as a reaction against an extreme view became an extreme view itself. The result of that extremism was the meglect of thinking. This book was designed to answer that heglect. The introduction to the first edition explained its rationale as follows:The emphasis on subjectivity served to correct a dangerous oversimplification. But it is the kind of reaction that cannot be sustained for long without causing an even worse situation-- the neglect of thinking. Worse for two reasons. First, because we live in an age of manipulation. Armies of hucksters and demagogues stand ready with the rich resources of psychology to play upon our emotions and subconscious needs to persuade us that superficial is profound, harmful is beneficial, evil is virtuous. And feelings are especially vulnerable to such manipulation.Secondly, because in virtually every important area of moden life--law, medicine, government, education, science, business, and community affairs--we are beset with serious problems and complex issues that demand careful gathering and weighing of facts and informed opinions, thoughtful consideration of various conclusions or actions, and judicious selection of the best conclusion or most appropriate action....[Today's college student] has been conditioned not to undervalue subjectivity, but to overvalue it. And so he does not need to have his feelings indulged. Rather, he needs to be taught how to sort out his feelings, decide to what extent they have been shaped by external influences, and evaluate them carefully when they conflict among themselves or with the feelings of others. In short, he needs to be taught to think critically.There is an unfortunate tendency among many to view feeling and thought as mutually exclusive, to force a choice between them. If we focus on one, then in their view we must reject the other. Feeling, being more spontaneous, is an excellent beginning to the development of conclusions. And thought, being more deliberate, provides a way to identify the best and most appropriate feeling. Both are natural.Thinking, however, is less automatic than feeling. To do it well demands a systematic approach and guided practice.The general attitude toward thinking has changed considerably since the mid-1970s. The view that critical thinking is an important skill to which education should give prominence is nolonger a minority view. Hundreds of voices have joined the chorus calling for the addition of critical thinking objectives to existing courses and even the creation of special courses in thinking. There is little disagreement that the challenges of the new millennium demand minds that can move beyond feelings to clear, impartial, critical problem solving and decision making.Features of This EditionThis edition of Beyond Feelings retains the basic organization of previous editions. The first sxection explains the psychological, philosophical, and social context in which critical thinking takes place and describes the habits and attitudes that enhance such thinking. The second section helps students recognize and overcome common errors in thinking. The third section provides a step-by-step strategy for dealing with issues.Within the overall desgn, however, I have made a number of changes, most in response to the helpful suggestions of reviewers.In Chapter 1, a new section--""The Inflence of Ideas""--has been added.In Chapter 3, a new section==""Understanding Cause and Effect""--has been added.In Chapter 15, new examples of the value of observation have been added. In Chapter 17, the subsection ""Evaluate your information sources"" has been expanded.A number of new ""Difference of Opinion"" excercises have been added.As in the past, I have attempted to follow George Orwell'ssage advece:""Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word, or a jargon word if you can think of an everday English equivalent."" Thhis is not always easy. When logicians are taught terms such as argumentum ad hominem, non sequitur, and ""affirming the consequent,"" they naturally want to use them. Arguments for doing so urge themselves upon us: for example, ""These are the most precise terms. Don't join the ranks of the coddlers and deprive students of them ."" In weak moments I succumb to this appeal.(Until the previous edition, for example, I included the term enthymeme. Mea culpa... there I go again.) But is the precision of such terms the real reason for my wanting to user them? Is it not possible that we professors enjoy parading our knowledge or that we are reluctant to spare our students the struggle we were forced to undergo(""We suffered, so they should too"")? It seems to me that modern culture already provides to many impediments to critical thinking for us to add more.Is it possble to carry this plain laguage commitment too far? Yes, and some will think I have done so in avoiding the term inferences and speaking instead of conclusions. But I respectfully disagree. Lexicographers pont out that the distinction between these terms is extremely subtle, so it seems more reasonable not to devote timeto it. Alse, I avoid using the term values whenever possible for a somewhat different reason. The word value is so associated with relativism that its use in this context can undermined the crucial idea that arguments differ in quality. For many students, the word vales triggers the thought, ""Everyone has a right to his or her values; mine are right for me, and though they may need 'clarification' from time to time, they are never to be questioned."" This thought impedes critical thinking.AcknowledgmentsI wish to express my appreciation to all those who contributed to the preparation of this edition. Special thanks to those who reviewed the manuscript:Anna Villegas, San Joaquin Delta College;Aimee Bissonette, Inver Hills Community College;James Kruser, Algred State College;Sue Crowson, Del Mar College;Erin Murphy, University of Kentuchy;Adrian Patten, University of Cincinnati;Dedaimia Storrs Whitney, Franklin College;Lisa Weisman-Davlantes, California State-Fullerton;Geoffrey Phillip Bellah, Orange Coast College;Karen Hoffman, Hood College;Aimee Ross-Kilroy, Loyola Marymount University;Deanna Davis, College of the CanyonsI am also grateful to Hogh Augustine, Delta College; Lori Ebert, International INstitute of the Americas; John Garcia, Cerro Coso Community College; Michael Small, Shasta College; Joel Brouwer, Montcalm Community College; Cynthia Gobatie, Riverside Cimmunity College; Anne Benvennti, Cerro Coso College; Fred Heifner Jr., Cumberland University; and Phyllis Toy, University of Southern Indiana.IntrodecitonBeyond Feelings is designed to introduce you to the subject of critical thinking. The subject may be new to you because it has not been emphasized in most elementary and secondary schools. In fact, until fairly recently, most colleges gave it little attention. For the past four decades, the dominant emphasisi has been on subjectivity rather than objectivity, on feeling thaer than on thought. Over the past several decades, however, a number of studies of America's schools have criticized the neglect of critical thinking, and a growing number of educators and leaders in business, industry, and the professions have urged the development of new courses and teaching materials to overcome that neglect.It is no exaggeration to say that critical thinking isone of the most important subjects you will study in college regardless of your academic major. The quality of your schoolwork, your efforts in your career, your contributions to community life, your conduct of personal affairs--all will depend on your ability to solve problemns and make decisions.The book has three main sections. The first, ""The Context,"" will help you understand subch important concepts as individuality, critical thinking, Truth, knowledge, opinion, evidence, and argument and overcome attitudes and ideas that obstruct critical thinking. The second section, ""The Pitfalls,"" will teach you to recognize and avoid the most common errors in thinking. The third section, ""A Strategy,"" will help you acquire the various skills used in addressing problems and issues. This section includes tips on identifying and overcoming your personal intellectual weaknesses as well as techniques for becoming more obsevant, clarifying issues, conducting inquiries, evalating evidence, analyzing other people's views, and making sound judgments.At the end of each chapter, you will find a number of applicatiions to challenge your critical thinking and help you excercise your skills. These applications cover problems and issues both timely and timeless. The final application in each of the first thirteen chapters invites you to examine an especially important issues about which informed opinion is divided.Students simetimes get the idea that a textbook must be read page by page and that reading ahead violates some unwritten rule. This notion is mistaken. Students' background knowledge varies widely; what one student knows very well, another knows only vaguely and a third is totally unfamiliar with. Any time you need or want to look ahead to an explanation in a later chpter, by all means do so. Let's say you make a statement and a friend says, ""That's relativism, pure and simple."" If you aren't sure exactly what she means, go to the index, look up ""relativism,"" proceed to the appropriate page, and find out.Looking ahead is especially prudent in the case of concepts and procedures relevant to the end-of-chapter application. One such concent is plagiarism. If you are not completely clear on what consitutes plagiasism, why it is unacceptable, and how to avoid it, take a few minutes right now to learn. Look for the section ""Avoiding Plagiarism"" toward the end of the Chapter 2. Similarly, if you are not as skilled as you would like to be doing library or Internet research, it would be a good idea to read Chapter 17 now. Doing so could save your a great deal of time and effort completing homework assignments.以上是前言和简介部分,之前已打好,存在印象笔记里,总觉得看着不方便,也不能让更多人看到,于是选了这块八年前开始打字的地皮,希望能帮到大家~PART ONE: The ContextAnyone who wishes to master an activity must first understand its tools and rules. This is as true of critical thinking as it is of golf, carpentry, flying a plane, or bran surgery. Incritical thinking, however, the tools are not materila objects but concepts, and the rules govern mental rather than physical performance.This first section explores seven important concepts--individuality, critical thinking, truth, knowledge, opinion, evidence, and argument-- with a chapter devoted to each. Most of htese concepts are so familiar that you may be incliend to wonder whether there is any point to examing them. Then anser is yes, for three reasons. First, much of what is commonly believed about these concepts is mistaken. Second, who ever examins them carefully is always rewarded with fresh insights. Third, the more thorought your knowledge of these concepts, the more proficient you will be in your thinking.Chapter 1 Who Are You?Suppose somone asked, ""Who are you ?"" It would be simple enought to respond with your name. But if the person wanted to know the entire story about who you are, the question would be more difficult to answer. You'd obviously have to give the detals of your height, age, and weight. You'd also have to include all your sentiments and preferences, even the secret ones you've never shared with anyone--your affction for your loved ones; your desire to please the people you associate with; your dislike of your older sister's husband; your allegiance to your favorite beverage, brand of clothing, and music.Your attitudes couldn't be overlooked either--your impatience when an issue gets complex, your aversion to certian courses, your fear of high places and dogs and speaking in public. the list would go on. To be complete, it would have to include all your characteristicks--not only the physical but also the emotional and intellectual.To provide all that information would be quite a chore. But suppose the questioner was still curious and asked, ""How did you get the way you are?"" If your patience were not yet exhausted, chances are you'd answer something like this:""I'm this way because I choose to be, because I've considered other sentiments and preferences and attitudes and have make my selections. The ones I have chosen fit my style and personality best."" That answer is natural enought, and in part it's true. But in a larger sense, it's not true. The impact of the world on all of us is much greater than most of us realize.The Influence of Time and PlaceNot only are you a menber of a particular species, Homo Sapiens, but you also exist at a particular time in the history of that species and in a particular place on the planet. that time and place are defined by specific circumstances, understandings, beliefs, and customs, all of which limit your experience and influence your thought patterns. If you had lived in America in colonial times, you likely would have had no objection to the paracitce of barring women from serving on a jury, entering into a legal contract, owning property, or voting. If you had lived in the ninetheenth century, you would have had no objection to young children being denied an education and being hired out by their parents to work sixteen hours a day, nor would you have given any thought to the special needs of adolescence.(the concept of adolescence was not invented until 1904.)If you had been raised in the Middle East, you would stand much closer to people you converse with than you do in America. If you had been raised in Indeia, you might be perfectly comfortable having your parents choose your spouse for you. If your native language were Spanish and your knowledge of English modest, you probably would be confused by some English colloquialisms. James Henslin offers two amusing examples of such confusion: Chevrolet Novas initially sold very poorly in Mexico because no va in Spanish means ""it doesn'twork""; and Perdue chickens were regarded with a certain suspicion(or worse) because the company's slogan--""It takes a tough man to make a tender chicken""--became in Spanish ""It takes an aroused man to make a chicken affectionate"".People who grow up in Europe, Asia, or South America have very different ideas of punctuality. As Daniel Goleman explains, ""Five minutes is late but permissible for a business appontment in the U.S., but thirty minutes is normal in Arab countries. In England five to fifteen minutes is the 'correct' lateness for one invited to dinner; an Italian might come two hours late, an Ethiopian still later, a Javanese not at all, having accepted only to prevent his host's losing face."" A different ethnic origin would also mean different tastes in food. Instead of craving a New York Strop steak and french fries, you might crave ""raw monkey brains"" or ""camel's milk cheese patties cured in dry camel's dung"" and washed down with ""warm camel's blood."" Sociologist Ian Robertson summed up the range of global dietary differences succinctly:""Americans eat oysters but not snails. The French eat snails but not locusts. The Zulus eat locusts but not fish. The Jews eat fish but not pork. The Hindus eat pork but not beef. The Russians eat beef but not snakes. The Chinese eat snakes but not people. The jale of New Guinea find people delicious.""[NOte: The reference to Hindus is mistaken.]To sum up, living in a different age or culture would make you a different persion. Even if you rebelled against the values of your time and place, they still would represent the context of your life--in other words, they still would influence your responses.The Influence of IdeasWhen one idea is expressed, closely related ideas are simultaneously conveyed, logically and inescapably. In logic, this kinship is expressed by the term sequitur, Latin for ""it follows.""(The converse is non sequitur, ""it does not follow."")Consider, for excample, the idea that many teachers and parents ecpress to young children as a way of encouraging them:""If you believe in yourself, you can succeed at anything."" From this it follows that nothing else but belief--neither talent nor hard work--is necessary for success. The reason the two ideas are equivalent is that their meanings are inseparably linked.In addition to conveying ideas closely linked to it in meaning, an idea can imply other ideas. For example, the idea that there is no real difference between virtue and vice implies that people should not feel bound by common moral standards. Samuel Johnson had this implication in mind when he said:""But if he does really think that there is no distinction betwwn virtue and vice, why, Sir, when he leaves our houses let us count our spoons.""If we were fully aware of the closely linked to it in meanings and implications of the ideas we encounter, we could easily sort out the sound ones from the unsound, the wise from the foolish, and the helpful from the harmful. But we are seldom fully aware. In many cases, we take ideas at face value and embrace them with little or nothought of their associated meanings and implications. In the course of time, our actions are shaped by those meanings and implications, whether we are aware of them or not.To appreciate the influence of ideas in people's lives, consider the series of events set in motion by an idea that was popular in psychology more than a century ago and whose influence continues to this day-- the idea that ""intelligence is genetically determined and cannot be increased.""That idea led reserchers to devise tests that measure intelligence. The most famous(badly flawed)test determined that the average mental age of white American adults was 13 and that, among immigrants, the average Russian's mental age was 11.34; the average Italian's 11.01; the average Pole's,10.74; and the average mental age of ""Negroes,"" 10.41.Educators read the text results and thought, ""Attempts to raise students' intelligence are pointless,"" so they replaced academic curricula with vocational curricula and embraced a methodology that taught students facts but not the process of judgment.Legislators read the test results and decided ""We've got to do something to keep intellecturally inferior people from entering the country,"" so they revised immigration laws to discriminate against southern and central Europeans.Eugenicists, who had long been concerned about the welfare of the human species, saw the tests as a grave warning. They thought, ""If intelligence cannot be increased, we must find ways of encouraging reproduction among people of highter intelligence and discouraging it among those of lower intelligence.""The eugenicists' concerninspired a variety of actions. Margaret Sanger's Planned Parenthood urged the lower classes to practice contraception. Others succeeded in legalizing promoted forced sterilization, notably in Virginia. The U.S.Supreme Court upheld the Virginia law with Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. declaring, ""Three generations of imbeciles are enough."" Over the next five decades 7,500 women, incleding ""unwedmother, prostitutes, petty criminals and children with disciplinary problems"" were sterilized. In addition, by 1950 over 150,000supposedly ""defective"" children, many relatively normal, were held against their will in institutions. They ""endured isolation, overcrowding, forced labor, and physical abuse including lobotomy, electroshock, and surgical sterilization.""Meanwhile, business leaders read the test results and decided, ""We need policies to ensure that workers leave their minds at the factory gate and perform their assigned tasks mindlessly."" So they enacted those policies. Decades later, when Edwards Deming porposed his ""quality control"" ideas for involving workers in decision making, business leaders remembered those test results and ignored Deming's advice.(In contrast, the Japanese welcomed Deming's ideas; as a result, several of their industries surged ahead of their American competition.)These are the most obvious effects of hereditarianism but they are certainly not the only ones. Others include discrimination against racial and ethnic minorities and the often-paternalistic policies of government offered in response.(some historians also link hereditarianism to the genocide that occurred in Nazi Germany.)The innumerable ideas you have encountered will affect your beliefs and behavior in similar ways--sometimes slightly, at other times profoundly. And this can happen even if you have not consciously embraced the ideas.The Influence of Mass CultureIn centuries past, family and teachers were the dominant, and sometimes the only, inflence on children. Today, however, the influence exerted by mass culture (the broadcast media, newspaper, magazines, Internet and popular music)often is greater.By age 18 the average teenager has spent 11,000 hours in the classroom and 22,000hours in front of the television set. He or she has had perhaps 13,000 school lessons yet has watched more than 750,000 commercials. By age thirty-five the same person has had fewer than 20,000 school lessons yet has watched aproximately 45,000 hours of television and close to 2 million commercials.What effects does mass culture have on us? To answer, we need only consider the formats and devices commonly used in the media. Modern advertising typically bombards the public with slogans and testimonials by celebrities. This approach is designed to appeal to emotions and create artificial needs for prodects and services. As a result, many people develop the habit of responding emotionally, impulsively, and gullibly to such appeals. They also tend to acquire values very different from those taught in the home and the school. Ads often portray play as more fulfilling than work, self-gratification as more desirable than self-control, and materialism as more meaningful than idealism.Television Programmers use frequent scene shifts and sensory appeals such as car crashes, violence, and sexual encounters to keep audience interest from diminishing. Then they add frequent commercial interruptions. This author has analyzed the attention shifts that television viewers are subjected to. In a dramatic program, for example, attention shifts might include camera angle changes; shifts in story line from one set of characters(or subplot) to another, or from a present scene to a past scene(flashback), or to fantasy; and shifts to ""newsbreaks,"" to commercial breaks, from one commercial to anotehr, and back to the program. Also included might be shifts of attention that occur within commercial. I found as many as 78 shifts per hour, exluding the shifts within commercials. The number of shifts within commercials ranged from 6 to 54 and averaged approximately 17 per fifteen-second commercial. The total number of attention shifts came out to over 800 per hour, or over 14 per minute.This manipulation has prevented many people from developing a mature attention span. They expect the classroom and the workplace to provide the same constent excitement they get from television. That, of course, is an impoossible demand, and when it isn't met they call their teachers boring and their work unfulfilling. Because such people seldom have the patience to read books that require them to think, many publishers have replaced serious books with light fare written by celebrities.Even when writers of serious book do manage to become published authors, they are often directed to give short, dramatic answers during promotional interviews, sometimes at the expense of accuracy. A man who coaches writers for talk shows offered one client this advice:"" If I ask you whether the budget deficit is a good thing or a bad thing, you should not say, 'Well, it simulates the economy but it passes on a burden.' You have to say 'It's a great idea!' or 'It's a terrible idea!' It doesn't matter which.""(Translation: ""Don't give a balanced answer. Give an oversimplified one because it will get you noticed."")Print journalism is also in the grip of sensationalism. As a newspaper editor observed, ""Journalists keep trying to find people who are at 1 or at 9 on a scale of 1 to 10 rather than people at 3 to 7 [the more moderate positions ] where most people actually are."" Another journalist claims, ""News is now becoming more opinion than verified fact. Journalists are slipping into entertainment rather than telling us the verified facts we need to know.""Today's politicians often manipulate people more offensively than do journalists. Insted of expressiong their thought, some politicians find out what people think and pretend to share their ideas. Many politicians hire people to conduct polls and focus groups to learn what messages will ""sell."" They even go so far as to test the impact of certain words--that is why we hear so much about ""trust,"" ""familyu,""""character,"" and ""values"" these days. Political science professor Larry Sabato says that during the Clinton impeachment trial, the presidents's advisors used the term private lives over and over--James Carville used it six times in one four-minute speech--because they knew it could persuade people into believing the president's lying under oath was of no great consequence.The ""Science"" of ManipulationAttempts to influence the thoughts and actions of others are no doubtas old as time, but manipulation did not become a science until the early twentieth century, when Ivan Pavlov, a Russian professor of psychology, published his research on conditioned(learned) reflexes. Pavlov found that by ringing a bell when he fed a dog, he could condition the dog to drool at the sound of the bell even when no food was presented. An American psychologist, John Watson, was impressed with Pavlov's findings and applied them to human behavior. In Watson's most famous experiment, he let a baby touch a laboratory rat. At first, the baby was unafraid. But then Watson hit a hammer against metal whenever the baby reached out to touch the rat, and the baby became frightened and cried. In time ,the baby cried not only at the sight of the rrat but also at the sight of anything furry, such as a stuffed animal. Watson's work earned him the title ""father of behaviorism.""Less well known is Watson's application of behaviorist principles to advertising. He spent the latter part of his career working for advertising agencies and soon recognized that the most effective appeal to consumers was not to the mind but to the emotions. He advised advertisers to ""tell [the consumer] something that will tie him up with fear, something that will stir up a mild rage, that will call out an affectionate or love response, or strike at a deep psychological or habit need."" His attitude towasrd the consumer is perhaps best indicated by a statement he made in a presentation to department store executives: ""The consumer is to the manufacturer, the department stores and the advertising agencies, what the green frog is to the physiologist.""Watson introduced these strategies in the 1920s and 1930s, the age of newpapers and radio. Since the advent of television, these advertising strategies have grown more sophisticated and effective, so much so that many individuals and group with political and social agendas have adopted them. The strategies work for a number of reasons, the chief one being people's conviction that they are impervious to manipulation. This belief is mistaken, as many researchers have demonstrated. For example, Solomon Asch showed that people's reactions can be altered simply by chaing the order of words in a series. He asked study participants to evaluate a person by a series of adjectives. When he put positive adjectives first--""intelligent, industrious, impulsive, critical, stubborn, envious""--the participants gave a positive evaluation. When he reversed the order, with ""envious"" coming first and ""intelligent"" last, they gave a negative evaluation.Similarly, research has shown that human memory can be manipulated. The way a question is asked can change the details in a person's memory and even make a person remember something that nver happended!Of course, advertisers and people with political or social agendas are not content to stimulate emotions and/or plant ideas in our minds. They also seek to reinforce those impressions by repeating them again and again. The more people hear a slogan or talking point, the more familiar it becomes. Before long, it becomes indistinguishable from ideas developed through careful thought. Sadly, ""the packaging is often done so effectively that the viewer, listener, or reader does not make up his own mind at all. Instead, he inserts a packaged opinion into his mind, somewhat like inserting a DVDinto a DVDplayer. He then pushes a button and 'plays back' the opinion whenever it seems appropriate to do so. He has performed acceptably without having had to think."" Many of the beliefs we hold dearest and defend most vigorously may have been planted in our minds in just this way.Many years ago, Harry A. Overstreet noted that ""a climate of opinion, like a physical climate, is so pervasive a thing that those who live within it and know no other take it for granted."" The rise of mass culture and the sophisticated use of manipulation have made this insight more relevant today than ever.The Influence of PsychologyThe social and psychological theories of our time also have an impact on our beliefs. Before the past few decades, people were urged to be self-disciplined, self-critical, and self-effacing. They were urged to practivce self-denial, to aspire to self-knowledge, to behave in a manner that ensured they maintained self-respect. Self-centeredness was considered a vice. ""Hard work,"" they were told, ""leads to achievement, and that in turn produces satisfaction and self-confidence."" By and large, our grandparents internalized those teachings. When they honored them in their behavior, they felt proud; when they dishonored them, they felt ashamed.Today the theories have been changed--indeed, almost exactly reversed. Self-esteem, which nineteenth-century satirist Ambrose Bierce defined as ""an erroneous appraisement,"" is now considered an imperative. Self-centeredness has been transformed from vice into virtue, and people who devote their lives to helping others, people once considered heroic and saintlike, are now said to be afflicted with "" a disease to please."" The formula ffor success and happiness begins with feeling good about ourselves. Students who do poorly in school, wrkers who don't measure up to the challenges of their jobs, substance abusers, lawbreakers--all are typically diagnosed as deficient in self-esteem.In addition, just as our grandparents internalized the social and psychological theories of their time, so most contemporary Americans have internalized the message of self-esteem. We hear people speak of it over coffee; we hear it endlessly invoked on talk shows. Challenges to its precepts are usually met with disapproval.But isn't the theory of self-esteem self-evident? No. A negative perception of our abilities will, of course, hadicap our performance. Dr. Maxwell Amltz explains the amazing results one educator had in improving the grades of schoolchildren by changing their self-images. The educator had observed that when the children saw themselves as stupid in a particular subject(or stupid in general), they unconsciously sacted to confirm their self-images. They believed they were stupid, so they acted that way. Reasoning that it was their defeatist attitude rather than any lack of ability that was undermining their efforts, the educator set out to change their self-images. He found that when he accomplished thatn, they no longer behaved stupidly! Maltz concludes from this and other examples that our experiences can work a kind of self-hypnotism on us, suggesting a conclusion about ourselves and then urging us to make it come true.Many proponents of self-esteem went far beyond Maltz's demonstration that self-confidence is an important ingredient in success. They claimed that there is no such thing as too much self-esteem. Research does not support that claim. For example, Martin Seligman, an eminent research psychologist and founder of the movement known as positive psychology, cites significant evidence that , rather than solving personal and social problems, including depression, the modern emphasis on self-esteem causes them.Maltz's research documents that lack of confidence impedes performance, a valuable insight. But suich research doesn't explain whjy the more gloabel concept of self-esteem has become so dominant. The answer to that question lies in the popularization of the work of humanistic psychologists such as Abraham Maslow. Maslow described what he called the hierarchy of human needs in the form of a pyramid, with physiological need(food and drink) at the foundation. Above them, in ascending order, are safety needs, the need for belongingness and love, the need for esteem and approval, and aesthetic and cognitive needs(knowledge, understanding, etc.) At the pinnacle is the need for self-actualization, or fulfillment of our potential. In Maslow'view, the lower needs must be fulfilled before the higher ones. It's easy to see how the idea that self-esteem must precede achievement was derived from Maslow's theory.Other theories might have been adopted, however. Anotable one is Austrian psychiatrist Viktor Frankl's, which was advanced at roughly the same time as Maslow's and was based on both Frankl's professinal practice and his experiences in Hitler'ss concentration camps. Frankl argues that one human need is higher than self-actualization: self-transcendence, the need to rise above narrow absorption with self. According to Frankl, ""the primordial anthropological fact [is] that being human is being always directed, and pointing to something or someone other than oneself: to a meaning to fulfill or another human being to encounter, a cause to serve or a person to love."" A person becomes fully human ""by forgetting himself and giving himself, overlooking himself and focusing outward.""making self-actualization (or happiness) the direct object of our pursuit, in Frankl's view, is ultimately self-defeating; such fulfillment can occur only as ""the unintended effect of self-transcendence."" The proper perspective on life, Frankl believes, is not what it can give to us, but what it expects from us; life is daily--even hourly--questioning us, challenging us to accept ""the responsibility to find the right answer to its problems and to fulfill the tasks which it constantly sets for [each of us].""Finding meaning, according to Frankl's theory, involves ""perceiving a possibility embedded in reality"" and searching for challenging tasks ""whose completion might add meaning to [one's] existence."" But such perceiving and searching are frustrated by the focus on self:""As long as modern literature confines itself to, and contents itself with, self-expression--not to say self-exhibition--it reflects its authors'sense of futility and absurdity. What is more importan, it also creates absurdity. This is understandable in light of the fact that meaning must be discovered, it cannot be invented. Sense cannot be created, but what may well be created is nonsense.""Whether we adgree completely with Frankl, one thing is clear: Contemporary American culture would be markedly different if the emphasis over the past several decades had been on Frankl' theory rather than on the theories of Maslow and the other humanistic psychologists. All of us would have been affected--we can noly imagine how profoundly--in our attitudes, values, and beliefs.Becoming an IndividualIN light of what we have discussed, we should regard individuality not as something we are born with but rather as something acquired--or, more precisely, earned. Individuality begins in the realization that it is impossible to escape beding influenced by other people and by circumstance. The essence of individuality is vigilance. The following guidelines will help you achieve this:1. Treat your first reaction to any person, issue, or situation as tentative. No matter how appealing it may be, refuse to embrace it until you have examined it.2. Decide why you reacted as you did. Consider whether you borrowed the reaction from someone else--aparent or friend, perhaps, or a celebrity or fictional character on television. If possible, determine what specific experiences conditioned you to react this way.3. Think of other possible reacitons you might have had to the person, issue, or situation.4. Ask yourself whether one of the other reactions is more appropriate than your first reaction. And when you answer, resist the influence of your conditioning.To ensure that you will really be an individual and not merely claim to be one, apply these guidelines throughtout your work in this book, as well as in your everyday life.ApplicationsNote: One of the best ways to develop your thinking (and writing)skills is to record your observations, questions, and ideas in a journal and then, as time permits, to reflect on what you have recorded--considering the meaning and application of the observations, answering the questions, elaborating on the ideas (and , where appropriate, challenging them), and recording your insights. An inexpenseive bound notebook or spiral notebook will serve the purpose. A good approach is to record your initial observations, questions, and ideas on the left side of the page, leaving the right side blank for your later analysis and commentary. The value of this reflective process is so great that you should consider keeping such a journal even if your instructor does not make it a formal part of the course.1. Do a brief study of attention shifts such as the one described in the chapter. Record a half-hour show. Then play the show back twice, the first time counting the number of shifts whthin the program, excluding commercials, and the second time counting only those within commercials. Complete the necessary arithmetic and be prepared to share your results in class.2. Reflect on your findings in application1. Write several paragraphs discussing the implications of those findings for education, business, and family life.3. Many people cheerfully pay $6 or $7 a gallon for designer frinking water but moan and groan when they have to pey $3 a gallon for gasoline. Deos anything you read in this chapter help you understand why this is so?4. Imagine how different America might be if Frankl's emphasis on self-transcendence and personal responsibility, rather than Maslow's emphasis on self-actualization and popular culture's emphasis on self-esteem, ahd been dominant for the past fifty years. List as many ways as you can in which our society might be different today and comment on whether each would be beneficial or harmful. Be prepared to explain your views in class discussion.5. Watch one of the music video channels--MTV, VH1,CMT,BET--for at least an hour. Analyze how men and women are depicted in the videos. Note significant details. For example, observe whether men are depicted in power roles more than women and whether momen are portrayed as objects of male desire. Decide what attitudes and values are conveyed. (You might want to record as you are watching so that you can review what you have seen, freeze significant frames for closer analysis, and keep your observations for later reference or class viewing and discussion.)6. Suppose you asked a friend, ""How did you acquire your particular identity--your sentiments and preferences and attitudes?"" Then suppose the friend responded, ""I'm an individual. No one else influences me. I do my own thing, and I select the sentiments and preferences and attitudes that suit me."" How would you explain to your friend what you learned in this chapter?7. Ask yourself the question, Who am I? Write down ten answers to this question, each on a separate slip of paper. Use the first three paragraphs of this chapter to help you frame your answers. Arrange the pieces of paper in order of their importance to you. Then explain the arrangement--that is ,which self-descriptions are most important to you, and why?8. Identify the vatious positive and negative influences that have shaped you. Be sure to incluede the particular as well as the general and the subtle as well as the obvious influences. Which of those influences have had the greatest effect on you? Explain the effects as precisely as you can.9. Note your immediate reaction to each of the following statements. Then apply the four guidelines given in this chapter for achieving individuality.a. Health care workers should be required to be tested for HIV/AIDS.b. Beauty contests and talent competitions for children should be banned.c. Extremist group like the Ku Klux Klan should be allowed to hold rallies on public property or be issued permits to hold parades on city streets.d. Freshman composition should be a required course for all students.e. High school and college athletes should be tested for anabolic steroid use.f. Creationism should be taught in high school biology classes.g. Polygamy should be legalized.h. The voting age should be lowered to sixteen.i. The prison system should give greater emphasis to the punishment of inmates than to their rehabilitation.j. Doctors and clinics should be required to notify parents of minors when they prescribe birth control devices or facilitate abortions for the minors.k. A man's self-esteem is severely injured if his wife makes more money than he makes.l. Women like being dependent on men.10. Group discussion exercise: Discuss several of the statements in application 9 with two or three of your classmates, applying the four guidelines presented in this chapter for developing individuality. Be prepared to share your group's ideas with the class.A Difference of OpinionThe following passage summarizes an important difference of opinion. After reading the statement, use the library and/or the Internet and find what knowledgeable people have said about the issue. Be sure to cover the entire range of views. Then assess the strengths and weaknesses of each. If you conclude that one view is entirely correct and the others are mistaken, explain how you reached that conclusxion. If, as is more likely, you find that one view is more insightful than the others but that they all make some valid points, construct a view of your own that combines insights from all views and explain why that view is the most reasonable of all. Present your response in a composition or an oral report, as your instructor specifies.Should captured terrorists be tried in military or criminal courts? When the United States decided to use the military base at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, to detain individuals captured on the battle field in the Iraq war, many people protested the decision. Some argued that captured individuals should be considered criminals rather than prisoners of war and accorded the rights guaranteed by the U.S. constitution to all people accused of crimes. Others argued for classifying the individuals as prisoners of war and treating them as specified in the Geneva Conventions of 1949. Supporters of the government's decision reject both arguments, contending that captured terrorists are neither criminals nor soldiers but ""unlawful combatants,"" adding that any other designation would impose burdens on the United States that any other desgnation would impose burdens on the United States that would make it difficult to fight terrorism and thereby threaten national security.Begin your analysi by conducting a Google search using the term ""status captured terrorists.""CHAPTER 2 What Is Critical Thinking?When Arthur was in the first grade, the teacher directerd the class to ""think."" ""Now, lcass, "" she siad, ""I know this probelm is a little harder than the ones we've been doing, but I'm going to give you a few extra minutes to think about it. Now start thinking.""It was not the first time Arthur had heard the word used. He'd heard it many times at home, but never quite this way. The teacher seemed to be asking for some special activity, something he should know how to start and stop--like his father's car. ""Vroom-m-m,"" he muttered half aloud. Because of his confusion, he was unaware he was making the noise.""Arthur, please stop making noises and start thinking.""Embarrassed and not knowing quite what to do, he looked down at his desk. then, out of the corner of his eye, he noticed that the little girl next to himwas staring at the ceiling. ""Maybe that's the way you start thinking,"" he guessed . He decided the others had probably learned how to do it last year, that time he was home with the measles. So he stare at the ceiling.As he progressed throught grade school and high school, he heard that same direction hundreds of times . ""No, that's not the answer, you're not thinking-- now think!"" And occasionally he would hear from particularlyself-pitying teachers given to muttering to themselves aloud:""What did I do to deserve this ? Don't they teach them anything in the grades anymore? Don't you people care about ideas? Think, dammit, THINK.""So Arthur learned to feel somewhat guilty about the whole matter. Obviously, this thinking was an important activity that he'd failed to learn. Maybe he laccked the grain power. But he was resourceful enough. He watched the other students and did what they did. Whenever a teacher started in about thinking, he screwed up his face, furrowed his brow, scratched his head, stroked his chin, stared off into space or up at the ceiling, and repeated silently to him self, ""Let's see now, I've got to think about that, think, think--I hope he doesn't call on me--think. Thought Arthur didn't know it, that's just what the other students were saying to themselves.Your experience may have been similar to Arthur's. In other words, many people may have simpley told you to think without ever explaining what thinking is and what qualities a good thinker has that a poor thinker lacks. If that is the case, you have a lot of company. Extensive, effective training in thinking is the exception rather than the rule. This fact and its unfortunate cnsequences are suggested by the following comments from accomplished observers of the human condition:The most interesting and astounding contradiction in life is to me the constant insistence by nearly all people upon ""logic,"" ""logical reasoning,"" ""sound reasoning,"" on the one hadn, and on the other their inability to display it, and their unwillingness to accept it when displayed by others.Most of our so-called reasoning consists in finding arguments for going on believing as we already do.Clear thinking is a very rare thing, but even just plain thinking is almost as rare. Most of us most of the time do not think at all. We believe and we feel, but we do not think.Mental indolence isone of the commonest of human traints.What is this activity that everyone claims is important but few people have mastered? Thinking is a general term used to cover numerous activities, from daydreaming to relection and analysis. Here are just some of the synonyms listed in Roget's Thesaurus for think:appreciate consult fancy reasonbelieve contemplate imagine reflectcerebrate deliberate meditate ruminatecogitate digest muse speculateconceive discuss ponder supposeconsider dream realize weighAll of those are just the names that thinking goes under. They really don't explain it. the fact is, after thousands of years of humans' experiencing thought and talking and writing about thinking, it remains in many respects one of the great mysteries of our existence. Still, though much is yet to be learned, a great deal is already known.Mind, Brain, or Both?Most modern researchers use the word mind synonymously with brain, as if the physical organ that resides in the human skull were solely responsible for thinking. This practice conveniently presupposes that a problem that has challenged the greatest thinkers for millennia--the relationship between mind and physical matter--was somehow solved when no one was looking. the problem it self and the individuals who spent their lives wrestling with it deserve better.Neuroscience has provided a numbber of valuable insights into the cognitive or thinking activities of the brain. It has documented that the left hemisphere of the brain deals mainly with detailed laguage processing and is associated with analysis and logical thinking, that the right hemisphere deals mainly with sensory images and is associated with intuition and creative thinking, and that the small bundle of nerves that lies between the hemispheres--the corpus callosum--integrates the vatious functions.The research that produced these insights showed that the brain is necessary for thought, but it has not shown that the brain is sufficient for thought. In fact, many philosophers lcaim it can never show that. They argue that the mind and the brain are demonstrably different. Whereas the brain is a physical entity composed of matter and therefore subject to decay, the mind is a metaphysical entity. Examine brain cells under the most powerful microscope and you will never see an idea or concept--for example, beauty, government, equality, or love--because ideas and concepts are not materila entities and so have mo physical dimension. Where, then, do these nonmaterial things reside? In the nonmaterial mind.The late Ameircan philosopher William Barratt observed that ""history is, fundamentally, the adventure of human consciousness"" and ""the fundamental history of humankind is the history of mind."" In his view, ""one of the supreme ironies of modern history"" is the fact that science, which owns its very existence to the human mind, has hav the audacity to deny the reality of the mind. As he put it, ""the offspring denies the parent.""the argument over whether the mind is a reality is not the only issue about the mind that has been hotly debated over the centuries. One especially importan issue is whether the mind is passive, a blank slate on which experience writes, as John Locke held, or active, a vehicle by which we take the initiative and excercise our free will, as G.W.Leibnitz argued. this book is based on the latter view.Critical thinking DefinedLet's begin by making the important distinction between thinking and feeling. I feel and think are sometimes used interchangeably, but that practice causes confusion. Feeling is a subjective response that reflects emotion, sentiments, or desire; it generally occurs spontaneously rather than through a conscious mental act. We don't have to employ our minds to feel angry when we are insulted, afraid when we are threatened, or compassionate when we see a picture of a starving child. The felings arise automatically.Feeling is useful in directing our attention to matters we should thingk about; it also can provide the enthusiasm and commitment necessary to complete arduous mental tasks. However, feeling is never a good substitute for thinking because it is notoriously unreliable. Some feelings are beneficial, honorable, even noble; others are not, as everyday experience demonstrates. We ofren feeli like dooing things that will harm us--for example, smoking, sunbathing without sunscreen, telling off our professor or employer, or spending the rent money on lottery tickets.Zinedine Zidane was one of the greatest soccer players of his generation, and many experts believed that in his final season(2006) he would lead France to the pinnacle of soccer success--winning the coveted World Cup. but then, toward the end of the championship game against Italy, he viciously head-butted an Italian player in full view of hundreds of millions of people. The referee banished him from the field, France lost the match, and a single surrender to feeling forever stained the brilliant career Zidane had dedicated his life to building.In contrast to felling, thinking is a conscious mental process performed to solve a problem, make a decision, or gain understanding. Whereas feeling has no purpose beyond expressiong itself, thinking aims beyond itself to knowledge or action. This is not to say that thinking is infallible; in fact, a good part of this book is devoted to exposing errors in thinking and showing you how to avoid them. Yet for all its shortcomings, thinking is the most reliable guide to action we humans possess. To sum up the relationship between feeling and thnking, feelings need to be tested before being trusted, and thinking is the most reasonable and reliable way to test them.There are three broad categories of thinking: reflective, creative, and critical. the focus of this book is on critical thinking. the essence of critical thinking is evaluation. Critical thinking, therefore, may be defined as the process by which we test claims and arguments and determine which have merit and which do not. In other word, critical thinking is a search for answers, a quest. Not surprisingly, one of the most important techniques used in critical thinking is asking probing questions. Where the uncritical accept their first thoughts and other people's statements at face value, critical thinkers challenge all ideas in this manner:Thought:Professor Vile cheated me in my composition grade. He weighted some themes more havily than others.Question:Did he grade everyone on the same stadard? Were the different weightings justified?Thought:Before women entered the work force, there were fewer divorces. That shows that a woman's place is in the home. Question:How do you know that this factor, and not some other one(s), is responsible for the increase in divorces?Thought:A college education isn't worth what you pay for it. Some people never reach a salary level appreciably higher than the level they would have reached without the degree.Question:Is money the only measure of the worth of an education? What about increased understanding of self and life and increased ability to cope with challenges?Critical thinking also employs questions to analyze issues. Consider, for example, the subject of values. when it is being discussed, some people say, ""Our country has lost its traditional values"" and ""There would be less crime, especially violent crime, if parents and teachers emphasized moral values."" Critical thinking would prompt us to ask,1. What is the relationship between values and beliefs? Between values and convictions?2. Are all values Valueable?3.How aware is the average person of his or her values? Is it possible that many people deceive themselves about their real values?4.Where do one's values originate? Within the individual or outside? In thought or in feeling?5.Does education change a person's values? If so, is this change always for the better?6. Should parents and teachers attempt to shape children's values?Characteristics of Critical ThinkersA number of misconceptions exist about critical thinking. One is that being able to support beliefs with reasons makes one a critical thinker. Virtually everyone has reasons, however weak they may be. The rest of critical thinking is whether the reasons are good and sufficient.Another misconception is that critical thiners never imitate others in thought or action. I(f that were the case, then every eccentric would be a critical thinker. Critical thinking means making sound decisions, regardless of how common or uncommon those decisions are.It is also a misconception that critical thinking is synonymous with having a lot of right answers in one's head. There's nothing wrong with having right answers, of course. But critical thinking involves the process of finding answers when they are not so readily available.And yet another misconception is that critical thinking cannot be learned, that one either has it or does not. On the contrary, critical thingking is a matter of habit. the most careless, sloppy thinker can become a critical thinker by developing the characteristics of a critical thinker. This is not to say that all people have equal thinking potential but rather that everyone can achieve dramatic improvement.We have already noted one characteristic of critical thinkers--skill in asking appropriate questions. Another is control of one'e mental activities. John Deway once observed that more of our time than most of us care to admit is spent ""trifling with mental pictures, random recollections, pleasant but unfounded hopes, flitting, half-developed impresstions."" Good thinkers are no excepiton. However, they have learned better than poor thinkers how to stop that casual, semiconscious drift of images when they wish and how to fix thieir minds on one specific matter, examine it carefully, and form a judgment about it. Tehy have learned, in other words, how to take charge of their thoughts, to user their minds actively as well as passively.Here are some additional characteristics of critical thinkers, as contrasted with those of uncritical thinkers:Critical Thinkers...Are honest with themselves, acknowledging what they don't know, recognizing their limitations, and being watchful of their own errors.Regard problems and controversial issues as exciting challenges.Strive for understanding, keep curiosity alive, remain patient with complexity, and are ready to invest time to overcome confusion.Base judgments on evidence rather than personal preferences, deferring judgment whenever evidence is insufficient. They revise judggments when new evidence reveals error.Uncirical Thinkers...Pretend they know more than they do, ignore their limitations, and assume their views are error-free.Regard problems and controversial issues as nuisances or threats to their ego.Are impatient with complexity and thus would rather remain confused than make the effort to understand.Base judgemnts on first impressions and gut reactions. They are unconcerned about the amount or quality of evidence and cling to their views steadfastly.Critical Thinkers...Are interested in other people's ideas and so are willing to read and listen attentively, even when they tent to disagree with the other person.Recognize that extreme views(whether conservative or liberral) are seldom correct, so they avoid them, practice fairmindedness, and seek a balanced view.Practice restraint, controlling their feelings rather than being controlled by them, and thinking before acting.Uncirical Thinkers...Are preoccupied with themselves and their own opinions and so are unwilling to pay attention to others' views. At the first sign of disagreement, they tend to think, ""How can I refute this?""Ignore the need for balance and give preference to views that support their established views.Tend to follow their feelings and act impulsively.As the desirable qualities suggest, critical thinking depends on mental discipline. Effective thinkers exert control over their mental life, direct their thoughts rather than being directed by them, and withhold their endorsement of any idea--even their own--until they have tested and confirmed it. John Dewey equated this mental discipline with freedom. That is, he argued that people who do not have it are not free persons but slaves to whim or circumstance:If a man's actions are not guided by thoughtful conclusions, then they are guided by inconsiderate impulse, unbalanced appetite, caprice, or the circumstances of the moment. To cultivate unhindered, unreflective external activity is to foster enslavement, for it leaves the person at the mercy of appetite, sense, and circumstance.The Role of IntuitionINtuition is commonly defined as immediate perception or comprehension of something--that is, sensiing or understanding something without the use of reasonging. Some everyday experiences seem to support this definition. You may have met a stranger and instantly ""known"" that you would be partners for life. When a car salesman told you that the price he was quoting you was his final, rock-bottom price, your intuition may have told you he was lying. On the first day of a particular course, you may have had a strong sense that you would not do well in it.Some important discoveries seem to have occurred instantaneously. For example, the German chemist Kelule found the solution to a difficult chemical problem intuitively. He was very tired when he slipped into a daydream. The image of a snake swallowing its tail came to him--and that provided the clue to the structure of the benzene molecule, which is a ring, rahter than a chain, of atoms. The German writer Goethe had been experienceing great difficulty organizing a large mass of material for one of his works when he learned of the tragic suicide of a close friend. At that very instant, the plan for organizing his materila occurred to him in detail. The English writer Samuel Taylor Coleridge(you man have read his Rime of the Ancient Mariner in high school) awoke from a dream with 200-300 lines of a new and complex poem clearly in mind.Such examples seem to suggest that intuition is very different from reasoning and is not influenced by it. but before accepting that conclusion, consider these facts:Breakthrough ideas favor trained, active minds. It is unusual for someone totally untrained in a subject to make a significant new discovery about it. Thus, if Kekule had been a plumber, Goethe a bookkeeper, and Coleridge a hairdresser, they would almost certainly not have received the intuitions for which they are famous.Some intuitions eventually prove to be mistaken. Thaty attractive stranger may turn out to be not your lifelong partner but a person for whom you develop a strong dislike. The car salesman's final price may have proved to be exactly that. And instead of doing poorly in that course, you may have done well.It is difficult to make an overall assessment of the quality of our intuiotions because we tentd to forget the ones that prove mistaken in much the same way a gambler forgets his losses.These facts have led some scholars to conclude that intuition is simply a consequence of thinking. They would say that something about the stranger appealed to you, something the salesman said or did suggested insincerity, something about the professor frightened you. IN each case, they would explain, you made a quick decision--so quick, in fact, that you were unaware that you'd been thinking. In the case of the breakthrough ideas, the scholares would say that when people become engrossed in probelms or issues, their unconscious minds often continue working on them long after they have turned their attention elsewhere. Thus, when an insight seems to come ""out of nowhere,"" it is actually a delayed result of thinking.Which view of intuitions is the correct one? Are intuitions different from and independent of thinking or not? Perhaps, for now, the most prudent answer is that sometimes they are independent and sometimes they are not ; we can't be sure when they are, and therefore it is imprudent to rely on them.Basic Activities in Critical ThinkingThe basic activities in critical thinking are investigation, interpretation, and judgment, in that order. The following chart summarizes each activity in relation to the other two.Activity: InvestigationDefinition: Finding evidence--that is, data that will answer key questions about the issueRequirements: The evidence must be both relevant and sufficient.Activity: InterpretationDefinition: Deciding what the evidence meansRequirements: The interpretation must be more reasonable than competing interpretations.Activity: JudgmentDefinition: Reaching a conclusion about the issueRequirements: The conclusion must meet the test of logic.As we noted previously, irresponsible thinkers first choose their conclusions and then seek out evidence to justify their choices. They fail to realize that the only conclusion worth drawing is one based on a thorough understanding of the problem or issue and its possible solutions or resolutions. Is it acceptable to speculate, guess, and form hunches and hypotheses? Absolutely, Such activities provide a helpful starting point for the thinking process. (Besides, we couldn't avoid doing so even if we tried.) The crucial thing is not to let hunches and hypotheses manipulate our thinking and dictate our conclusion in advance.Critical Thinking and Writing Writing may be used for either of two broad purposes: to discover ideas or to communicate them. Most of the writing you have done in school is undoubtedly the latter kind. But the former can be very helpful, not only in sorting out ideas you've already produced, but also in stimulating the flow of new ideas. For some reason, the very act of writing down one idea seems to generate additional ideas.Whenever you write to discover ideas, focus on the issue you are examing and record all your thoughts, questions, and assertions. Don't worry about organization or correctness. If ideas come slowlyu, be patient. If they come suddenly, in a rush, don't try to slow down the process and develop any one of them; simply jot them all down.(There will be time for elaboration and correction later.) Direct your mind's effort, but be sensitive to ideas on the fringe of consciousness. Often they, too, will prove valuable.If you have done your discovery writing well and have thought critically about the ideas you have produced, the task of writing to communicate will be easier and more enjoyable. You will have many more ideas--carefully evaluated ones--to develop and organize.有中文版本么,英语看着费劲,结束了么@ty_137487322 有中文版本么,英语看着费劲,结束了么-----------------------------有的,《超越感觉》@ty_137487322 有中文版本么,英语看着费劲,结束了么-----------------------------京东上30块钱就能买到中文版,但是翻译得一般,建议看原文版
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